Methods of Using MicroRNA-141

ABSTRACT

Provided herein are methods of treating a cancer in an individual. A microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or mimic that increases the expression of microRNA-141 in the cancer cell is administered to the individual. Also provided is a method of inhibiting proliferation of a cancer cell and treating a cell associated with a cancer. The cell is contacted with the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or mimic.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This non-provisional application claims benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) of provisional application U.S. Ser. No. 62/341,634, filed May 26, 2016, the entirety of which is hereby incorporated by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention

The present invention relates to the fields of molecular biology and oncology. More specifically, the present invention relates to methods of using microRNA-141 to suppress tumor growth and metastasis.

Description of the Related Art

Human cancers are heterogeneous containing cancer stem cells (CSCs) that possess high capacities for tumor propagation as well as metastasis (1-3). Metastasis causes >90% of cancer related deaths but the understanding of the molecular mechanisms that regulate metastasis remains limited. The invasion-metastasis cascade is a multistep cellular process that involves dissemination of cancer cells through the surrounding extracellular matrix, survival in the circulation, and initial seeding followed by subsequent expansion (colonization) in the foreign microenvironment. Recent evidence suggests that microRNAs (miRNAs), small (˜20-22 nt) noncoding RNAs that modulate multiple biological processes, play important roles in regulating cancer stem cells, tumor development, and metastasis (4-7). Specific microRNAs, highlighted by miR-200 family, miR-34a, let-7, miR-10b, and miR-93 (8-17), may function as either promoters or suppressors of metastasis via a variety of mechanisms.

In human prostate cancer (HPCa), several cancer stem cell populations have been reported using cell surface markers (e.g., CD44, CD133, integrin α₂β₁, ABCG2, etc), functional assays including side population (SP) and Aldefluor, and reporter-based lineage tracing strategies (18-26). These prostate cancer stem cell (PCSC) populations have been shown to possess high clonal, clonogenic, tumor propagating, invasive, and metastatic activities and to be refractory to castration, docetaxel, and many other therapeutics. Nevertheless, how prostate cancer stem cells are molecularly regulated, e.g., by microRNAs, remains poorly understood.

In a previous microRNA library screening for prostate cancer stem cell-regulating microRNAs, miR-34a and let-7, both being potent tumor suppressors, are prominently under-expressed in several prostate cancer stem cell populations and negatively regulate prostate cancer stem cell activity, tumor growth and metastasis (13,14).

The miR-200 family, which encompasses miR-200 a, b, and c, miR-429, and miR-141, is among the first to be reported as important negative regulators of epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) (8-10), an essential developmental process also implicated in cancer metastasis (27,28). Although the prevailing view is that under-expression of miR-200s promotes epithelial to mesenchymal transition and metastasis, there are also reports of upregulated expression and potential metastasis-promoting effects of miR-200 members in different types or subtypes of cancer (11,29). In addition, serum levels of miR-141 and other miR-200 family members have been positively associated with the different clinical outcomes of prostate, ovarian, colon and breast cancers (30-32).

The prior art is deficient in methods of using miR-141 as a tumor suppressor. The present invention fulfills this longstanding need and desire in the art.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed to a method of treating cancer in an individual. The method comprises administering to the individual a pharmacologically effective amount of a microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or a micro-RNA-141 or a pharmaceutical composition thereof that increases the expression of microRNA-141 in a cell associated with the cancer.

The present invention is directed further to a method of inhibiting proliferation of a cancer cell in an individual. The method comprises administering to the individual a pharmacologically effective amount of a microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or a micro-RNA-141 mimic or a pharmaceutical composition thereof that increases the expression of microRNA-141 in the cancer cell.

The present invention is directed further still to a method of inhibiting proliferation of a cell associated with cancer. The method comprising contacting the cell with a pharmacologically effective amount of a microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or a micro-RNA-141 mimic that increases the expression of microRNA-141 in the cancer cell of the individual.

Other and further aspects, features, benefits, and advantages of the present invention will be apparent from the following description of the presently preferred embodiments of the invention given for the purpose of disclosure.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

So that the matter in which the above-recited features, advantages and objects of the invention, as well as others that will become clear, are attained and can be understood in detail, more particular descriptions of the invention briefly summarized above may be had by reference to certain embodiments thereof that are illustrated in the appended drawings. These drawings form a part of the specification. It is to be noted, however, that the appended drawings illustrate preferred embodiments of the invention and therefore are not to be considered limiting in their scope.

FIGS. 1A-1M shows under-expression of miR-141 in CD4⁺ PCa cells and its PCa-suppressive functions. FIG. 1A shows the relative expression levels of miR-141 in cancer stem cell populations (compared to the corresponding marker-negative cells) in xenografts including CD44⁺ populations from LAPC4, LAPC9, VCaP and Du145, α2β1+ from Du145, and CD133⁺ from LAPC4. FIG. 1B shows the relative expression levels of miR-141 in 4 AR+ and 4 AR− human prostate cancer cell types. Average % of CD44⁺ cells (as determined by flow analysis; n=3-5) is indicated for each cell type (UD, undetectable). FIG. 1C shows the relative expression levels of miR-141 in CD44⁺ cells (as % of the corresponding CD44-cells) from 21 primary Human prostate cancer samples. FIGS. 1D-1F shows that miR-141 inhibits clonal and clonogenic properties of CD44⁺ Du145 cells. Purified CD44⁺ Du145 cells were transfected with NC or miR-141 oligos (30 nM, 48 h) and then plated for clonal (1D & 1E) and sphere (1F) assays. Bars represent mean±SD. *, P<0.05; **, P<0.01. FIGS. 1G-1J shows that miR-141 inhibits prostate tumor regeneration and growth. Shown are tumor images, cell numbers injected (100,000 cells per injection for all models), site of injection (s.c, subcutaneously) and days (d) when tumors were harvested. Tumor weight and incidences with corresponding P values are also indicated. ns, not significant. FIGS. 1K-1M show that miR-141 inhibits clonal and clonogenic properties of primary CD44⁺ HPCa cells. Purified CD44⁺ HPCa202 cells were infected with Lenti-ctl or Lenti-141 (MOI 10, 72 h) and plated for clonal assay (1K) or sphere assays in Matrigel (1L & 1M). For 1st generation (1°) sphere assays, 1,000 cells per well were plated in triplicate for each group in 12-well plate and results scored in 11 days. For 2nd generation (2°), the 1° spheres were harvested, digested with Collagenase and Trypsin into single cells, 1,000 cells/well were plated, and results scored in 10 days. Quantification of the colonies was plotted (1 L; **P<0.01).

FIGS. 2A-2I show that miR-141 inhibits lung metastasis of CD44⁺ PCa cells. FIGS. 2A-2D show that miR-141 inhibits lung metastasis of CD44^(hi) PC3 cells. FACS-purified CD44^(hi) luciferase/GFP double-tagged PC3 cells were infected with Lenti-141 or Lenti-ctl (MOI 10) and 100,000 cells each were injected into the DP of NOD/SCID mice (n=9). Tumor growth and metastasis were monitored using bioluminescence imaging (IVIS). FIGS. 2A-2B show the representative images and quantification (in total photon flux) of primary tumors before termination of the experiment. FIGS. 2C-2D show the representative images (FIG. 2C) and quantification (FIG. 2D) of lung metastasis with the primary tumors covered. In a, 4 animals showed lung metastasis without their primary tumors covered. Insets in (FIG. 2D) are the representative GFP IHC images in the lungs (note significantly reduced GFP+ metastatic foci in the Lenti-141 lung). FIG. 2E shows that miR-141 inhibits lung metastasis of CD44⁺ Du145 cells. CD44⁺ Du145 cells were infected with Lenti-ctl or Lenti-141 (MOI 10; 72 h) and cells were then injected into the DP of male NOD/SCID mice. Mice were terminated at day 56 and organs including lung were harvested for analyzing metastasis. Shown were representative IHC images of humanspecific Ki-67 staining. FIGS. 2F-2I show that miR-141 inhibits LAPC9 metastasis. LAPC9-GFP cells were infected with TRIPZ-NS or TRIPZ-141 inducible lentivirus (MOI 10, 72 h) and CD44⁺ cells were purified out by FACS. 100,000 cells each were injected into the DP of NOD/SCID mice and, from day 16 on, two groups of mice were treated with Dox (200 mg/kg body weight in feed). Tumor volumes were measure twice weekly (FIG. 2F). Mice were terminated at day 40 and endpoint tumors were harvested and weighted (FIG. 2G; incidence indicated in bars). Lungs (and LN and some other organs) were harvested (FIG. 2H) to analyze metastasis by assessing GFP+ metastasis foci (FIG. 2I).

FIGS. 3A-3J show partial suppression of epithelial to mesenchymal transition by miR-141 and CD44 as a direct target of miR-141. FIGS. 3A-3B show qPCR analysis of epithelial to mesenchymal transition markers in bulk (FIG. 3A) or CD44⁺ (FIG. 3B) Du145 cells transfected with the miR-141 oligos (30 nM; 48 h). Results were presented as the relative expression levels over the cells transfected with the NC oligos. FIG. 3C shows western blotting of E-Cadherin and ZEB-1 in PC3 and Du145 cells transfected with NC (60 nM) or miR-141 (30 or 60 nM) oligos (48 h). GAPDH was used as control and the relative protein levels after normalizing to GAPDH and NC controls were indicated below each lane. FIG. 3D shows a schematic of predicted miR-141 and miR-34a binding sites in the CD44 3′-UTR. Shown below is the actual sequence in the region with the mutated miR-141 binding sequence indicated in grey (below). FIG. 3E shows luciferase reporter assays in Du145 cells cotransfected with either wild-type CD44 3′-UTR or mutated 3′-UTR construct with miR-141 or NC oligos. FIG. 3F shows qPCR analysis of CD44 mRNA levels in the indicated PCa cells over-expressing miR-141 and in endpoint tumors generated from miR-141 overexpressing PCa cells. FIG. 3G shows representative Western blotting images of CD44 in PC3 and Du145 cells transfected with NC (60 nM) or miR-141 (30 and 60 nM) oligos harvested at two time points. FIG. 3H shows IF staining of CD44 (red) in PC3 cells transduced with Lenti-141 reveals a mutually exclusive expression pattern of CD44 and miR-141 (×200). Shown are representative images. FIG. 3I shows representative CD44 IHC images in two pairs of endpoint Du145 tumors derived from cells initially transduced with Lenti-141 or Lenti-ctl. FIG. 3J shows overexpression of a non-targetable CD44 cDNA partially ‘rescues’ the invasion-inhibitory effects of miR-141. Du145 cells were co-transfected with NC or miR-141 oligos (30 nM) together with pBabe empty vector or pBabe-CD44 vector. After 48 h, cells were harvested for invasion assays. Bars, mean±SD. *, P<0.05; **, P<0.01.

FIGS. 4A-4Y shows that RNA-Seq analysis reveals novel miR-141 targeted signaling molecules and pathways. FIG. 4A shows experimental scheme of RNA-Seq in Du145 cells and subsequent data analysis. FIG. 4B shows major mitogenic pathways affected by miR-141 expression in Du145 cells revealed by IPA. FIGS. 4C-4E shows GSEA reveals negative enrichment of miR-141-altered genes in CELL CYCLE (FIG. 4C) and ESC core (FIG. 4D) gene sets but positive association with “Mammary Stem Cell Downregulated” gene set (FIG. 4E). FIG. 4F shows IPA showing that miR-141 impacted several pathways involved in epithelial to mesenchymal transition and Rho family GTPase signaling (shaded). FIG. 4G shows a heat map of representative epithelial to mesenchymal transition-related molecules from Du145 RNA-Seq results. FIG. 4H shows functional classification of the 949 genes downregulated by miR-141 in Du145 cells. The non-redundant functional classification was conducted as previously described (23, 25, 39). The % for most functional categories are indicated. FIGS. 4I-4K shows GSEA reveals positive enrichment of miR-141-altered genes in luminal (i.e., differentiated epithelial) breast cancer cells (FIG. 4I), CDH1 targets downregulated (FIG. 4J), and ZEB1 targets (FIG. 4K) gene sets. FIG. 4L shows the top 35 putative direct targets of miR-141 as revealed by merging Du145 RNA-Seq data with the miR-200 Ago-HITS-CLIP-Seq data12. Bars represent the relative expression levels of each gene from RNA-Seq. FIG. 4M shows experimental scheme of RNA-Seq in LAPC9 cells and subsequent data analysis. FIG. 4N shows that IPA revealed that miR-141 impacted pathways involving Rho GTPases, and actin cytoskeleton, cell-cell junction, and EMT signaling. FIG. 4O shows functional classification of the 459 genes downregulated by miR-141 in LAPC9 cells. Note that the gene category classified as the “Metastasis-associated”represents one of the largest affected by miR-141. FIG. 4P is a heat map of representative EMT-related molecules in the LAPC9 RNA-Seq experiment. FIG. 4Q shows that the top 35 putative direct targets of miR-141 as revealed by merging LAPC9 RNA-Seq data with the miR-200 Ago-HITS-CLIP data. Bars represent the relative expression levels of each gene from RNA-Seq. Targets that are shared with the putative direct targets in Du145 cells are colored in red. FIG. 4R shows that two “EZH2 Targets Downregulated” (DN) gene sets positively correlated with the miR-141 expressing LAPC9 gene expression profile. FIG. 4S shows the open reading frame. The TGFB2 mRNA has one perfectly matched 7mer binding site for miR-141 (a) whereas the CDK6 3′-UTR harbors 5 perfectly matched 6mer binding sites and 1 mismatched 8mer binding site. ARPC5 has one perfectly matched 7mer binding site and three binding sites with a mismatch in each site at the 3′-UTR. Similarly, CDC42EP3 has one perfectly matched 8mer binding site at the 3′UTR and one binding site with a mismatch in the ORF. In contrast, CDC42 (a, e), RAC1 (a, f), and PDHA1 (a, g) each has one perfectly matched 7mer, 6mer, and 8mer binding site at their respective 3′-UTR's. Finally, for CD44 (a), there is one 7mer miR-141 binding site at the 3′-UTR that contains a mismatch and 6 other potential binding sites with a mismatch in each at the 3′-UTR or ORF. FIGS. 4T-4Y shows several examples of novel direct miR-141 targets identified, including cellcycle related (CDK6, FIG. 4T), Rho GTPase related (ARPC5, CDC42EP3, CDC42, and RAC1; FIGS. 4U-4W, metabolism related (PDHA1; FIG. 4X), and CD44 (FIG. 4Y). The black arrows indicate putative binding site(s) with a mismatch while the red arrows the perfectly matched target sites with its sequence alignment. For each gene, the NM number and the length of the 3′-UTR are indicated.

FIGS. 5A-5G shows that Rho GTPase signaling pathway members are direct targets of miR-141. FIG. 5A shows that miR-141 reduces the protein levels of RAC1, CDC42, ARPC5 and CDC42EP3. Du145 cells transfected with NC or miR-141 oligos at the two doses and time intervals indicated were used in Western blotting. Indicated below are relative expression levels (normalized to respective GAPDH and compared to NC) of each protein determined by densitometric scanning of the individual bands. FIG. 5B shows that luciferase reporter assays in Du145 cells co-transfected with wild-type RAC1, CDC42, ARPC5, or CDC42EP3 3′-UTRs and 30 nM miR-141 or NC oligos. Bars, mean±SD. *P<0.05; **P<0.01. FIG. 5C shows that over-expression of RAC1 or CDC42 ‘rescued’ the inhibitory effects of miR-141 on invasion. Du145 cells were co-transfected with NC or miR-141 oligos (30 nM) in combination with pcDNA3.1 (control) vector or pcDNA-RAC1 or pcDNA-CDC42 expression vector. After 48 h, cells were harvested for invasion assays. FIG. 5D shows that miR-141 expression inhibits the GTPase activities of RAC1 and CDC42 but not of RhoA. Du145 cells were infected with Lenti-141 or control lentivirus (MOI 10, 48 h) and then harvested to measure the Rho GTPase activities. Bars, mean±SD. *P<0.05. FIGS. 5E-5G shows that anti-miR-141 promotes PCa cell invasion. Du145 cells were transfected with the antisense oligos to NC or miR-141 (anti-141; 30 nM) and then used in invasion assays (FIG. 5E). In FIG. 5F and FIG. 5G Du145 cells were transfected with 10 nM of scramble siRNA control (siCon) or siRNAs targeting RAC1 (FIG. 5F) or CDC42 (FIG. 5G), either alone or in combination of anti-141 (30 nM). 48 h later, cells were harvested for invasion assays. Bars, mean±SD. *P<0.05; **P<0.01.

FIGS. 6A-6I show that EZH2 is a direct target of miR-141. FIG. 6A: Putative binding site of miR-141 in EZH2 3′-UTR. FIG. 6B shows luciferase reporter assays in Du145 cells co-transfected with either wild-type EZH2 3′-UTR or the 3′-UTR with the predicted miR-141 binding site mutated with miR-141 or control oligos. FIG. 6C is a qPCR analysis of EZH2 mRNA levels in CD44⁺ PCa cells. Bars, mean±SD. *P<0.05; **P<0.01. FIG. 6D shows over-expression of miR-141 in Du145 cells using either oligo transfection or lentiviral infection reduced EZH2 mRNA levels. Bars, mean±SD. **P<0.01. FIG. 6E shows that miR-141 reduces EZH2 and SUZ12 protein levels. Western blotting was performed in PC3 and Du145 cells transfected with NC (60 nM) or miR-141 (30 or 60 nM) oligos (72 h). Relative protein levels were measured by densitometry and normalized to GAPDH levels (indicated below). FIG. 6F is a GSEA showing the enrichment of miR-141 downregulated genes in the SUZ12 Targets gene set. FIG. 6G shows that the EZH2 inhibitor DZNep inhibits PCa cell invasion. Du145 cells plated one day before were treated with 1, 2, and 5 μM of DZNep for 96 h and then cells were harvested for invasion assays. **P<0.01. Inset, WB showing reduced EZH2 proteins by DZNep. FIG. 6H shows that EZH2 knockdown inhibits PCa cell invasion that can be partially overcome by anti-141. Du145 cells were transfected with 10 nM scramble siRNA (siCon) or EZH2-targeting siRNAs (siEZH2) or siEZH2 plus anti-miR-141 (30 nM). 48 h later, cells were harvested for invasion assays. Bars, mean±SD. **P<0.01. FIG. 6I shows that EZH2 overexpression partially ‘rescues’ the inhibitory effects of miR-141 on invasion. Du145 cells were co-transfected with 30 nM NC or miR-141 oligos together with empty vector or pCMV-EZH2 construct. After 48 h, cells were harvested for invasion assay. Bars, mean±SD. **P<0.01.

FIGS. 7A-7F shows that miR141 mimics inhibit the invasion/proliferation of lung cancer cells. FIGS. 7A-7B show that miR141 mimics inhibit the proliferation and invasion of 95-D lung cancer cells, respectively. FIGS. 7C-7D show that miR141 mimics inhibit the proliferation and invasion of NCI-H358 lung cancer cells, respectively. FIGS. 7E-7F show that miR141 mimics inhibit the proliferation and invasion of NCI-H446 non-small lung cancer cells, respectively, where 141-1/2 is the mimic of miR141. N is the non-sense mimic, M is medium control, B is the black control ** means p value is <<0.01 comparing with nonsense control.

FIGS. 8A-8F show that miR141 mimics inhibit the invasion/proliferation of liver cancer cells. FIGS. 8A-8B show that miR141 mimics inhibit the proliferation and invasion of Hep3B2.1-7 liver cancer cells, respectively. FIGS. 8C-8D show that miR141 mimics inhibit the proliferation and invasion of HepG2 liver cancer cells, respectively. FIGS. 8E-8F show that miR141 mimics inhibit the proliferation and invasion of HL-7702 liver cancer cells, respectively, where 141-1/2 is the mimic of miR141. N is the non-sense mimic, M is medium control, B is the blank control, ** means p value is <<0.01 comparing with nonsense control.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

As used herein in the specification, “a” or “an” may mean one or more. As used herein in the claim(s), when used in conjunction with the word “comprising”, the words “a” or “an” may mean one or more than one.

As used herein “another” or “other” may mean at least a second or more of the same or different claim element or components thereof. Similarly, the word “or” is intended to include “and” unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. “Comprise” means “include.”

As used herein, the term “about” refers to a numeric value, including, for example, whole numbers, fractions, and percentages, whether or not explicitly indicated. The term “about” generally refers to a range of numerical values (e.g., +/−5-10% of the recited value) that one of ordinary skill in the art would consider equivalent to the recited value (e.g., having the same function or result). In some instances, the term “about” may include numerical values that are rounded to the nearest significant figure.

As used herein, “treating” refer to administering to a individual a composition so that the individual has an improvement in the disease or condition. The improvement is any observable or measurable improvement. Thus, one of skill in the art realizes that a treatment may improve the individual's condition, but may not be a complete cure of the disease. Treating may also comprise treating individuals at risk of developing a disease and/or condition of the invention.

As used herein “composition” refers to a pharmaceutical composition comprising the microRNA-141 of the invention and optionally a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The compositions may be used for diagnostic or therapeutic applications. The administration of the pharmaceutical composition may be carried out by known methods, wherein a microRNA-141 is introduced into a desired target cell in vitro or in vivo.

As used herein “pharmacologically effective amount” refers to generally an amount effective to accomplish the intended purpose. However, the amount can be less than that amount when a plurality of the compositions are to be administered, i.e., the total effective amount can be administered in cumulative dosage units. The amount of active agent can also be more than the effective amount when the composition provides sustained release of the pharmacologically active agent. The total amount of a pharmacologically active agent to be used can be determined by methods known to those skilled in the art. However, because the compositions may deliver the pharmacologically active agent more efficiently than prior compositions, less amounts of active agent than those used in prior dosage unit forms or delivery systems can be administered to a subject while still achieving the same blood levels and/or therapeutic effects.

As used herein “contacting” refers to any suitable method of bringing a compound or a pharmaceutical composition into contact with a cell in vivo, in vitro or ex vivo. For in vivo applications, any known method of administration is suitable as known in the art.

In one embodiment, there is provided a method of treating cancer in an individual, comprising administering to the individual a pharmacologically effective amount of a microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or a micro-RNA-141 mimic or a pharmaceutical composition thereof that increases the expression of microRNA-141 in the cell associated with the cancer.

In this embodiment the cancer is a prostate cancer, a lung cancer or a liver cancer. Also in this embodiment the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide may have the sequence shown in SEQ ID NO: 1. In addition, administering the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic decreases the levels mRNA and protein level of CD44, EZH2, SUZ12, Rho GTPases or a combination thereof in the cancer cell. Furthermore, the cancer is prostate cancer and administering the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic upregulates E-Cadherin (CDH1), CLDN7, CLDN3, cytokeratin genes in a prostate cancer cell. Further still, the cancer is prostate cancer and administering the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic downregulates TGFB2, CDK6, SEC23A, ZEB1, MAP2K4, ARPC5, CDC42EP3, CDC42, RAC1, CD44 or VIM genes in a prostate cancer cell. Further still, administering the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic inhibits cell proliferation, inhibits invasion, inhibits migration, inhibits tumor growth, inhibits tumor regeneration, or inhibits metastatic potential or a combination thereof in the cancer.

In another embodiment, there is a method of inhibiting proliferation of a cancer cell in an individual, comprising administering to the individual a pharmacologically effective amount of a microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or a micro-RNA-141 mimic or a pharmaceutical composition thereof that increases the expression of microRNA-141 in the cancer cell.

In this embodiment the cancer cell is a prostate cancer, a lung cancer or a liver cancer. Also in this embodiment the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide may have the sequence shown in SEQ ID NO: 1. In addition, administering the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic inhibits invasion, migration, tumor growth, tumor regeneration, or metastatic potential of the cancer cell. Furthermore, administering the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic decreases the levels mRNA and protein level of CD44, EZH2, SUZ12, Rho GTPases or a combination thereof in the cancer cell. Further still, the cancer is prostate cancer and administering the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic upregulates E-Cadherin (CDH1), CLDN7, CLDN3, cytokeratin genes therein. Further still, the cancer is prostate cancer and administering the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic downregulates TGFB2, CDK6, SEC23A, ZEB1, MAP2K4, ARPC5, CDC42EP3, CDC42, RAC1, CD44 or VIM genes therein.

In yet another embodiment, there is provided a method of inhibiting proliferation of a cell associated with a cancer, comprising contacting the cell with a pharmacologically effective amount of a microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or a micro-RNA-141 mimic that increases the expression of microRNA-141 in the cell.

In this embodiment the cancer is a prostate cancer, a lung cancer or a liver cancer. Also in this embodiment the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide may have the sequence shown in SEQ ID NO: 1. In addition, contacting the cell with the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic decreases the levels mRNA and protein level of CD44, EZH2, SUZ12, Rho GTPases or a combination thereof in the cell. Furthermore, the cell is associated with a prostate cancer and contacting the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic upregulates E-Cadherin (CDH1), CLDN7, CLDN3, or cytokeratin genes therein. Further still, the cell is associated with a prostate cancer and contacting the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic downregulates TGFB2, CDK6, SEC23A, ZEB1, MAP2K4, ARPC5, CDC42EP3, CDC42, RAC1, CD44 or VIM genes therein. Further still, contacting the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic inhibits cell proliferation, inhibits invasion, inhibits migration, inhibits tumor growth, inhibits tumor regeneration, or inhibits metastatic potential or a combination thereof. The following examples are given for the purpose of illustrating various embodiments of the invention and are not meant to limit the present invention in any fashion.

Example 1 Material and Methods Cells, Xenografts and Animals

Du145, LNCaP, PC3, PPC-1, VCaP cells were obtained from American Type Cell Culture and cultured in RPMI-1640 (Life Technologies, Carlsbad, Calif.) plus 7% fetal bovine serum (FBS) with the exception of VCaP, which were cultured in Dulbecco's Modified Eagles Medium (DMEM, Life Technologies) supplemented with 15% fetal bovine serum. Human xenograft prostate tumors, LAPC9 [bone metastasis; positive for androgen receptor (AR) and prostate-specific antigen (PSA)], LAPC4 (lymph node metastasis; AR+ and PSA+), and Du145 (bone metastasis; AR− and PSA−) were maintained in NOD/SCID mice. These cell and xenograft lines, which have been routinely utilized (13, 14, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 33) and authenticated by institutional CCSG Cell Line Characterization Core using short tandem repeat (STR) analysis and checked to be free of mycoplasma contamination using the Agilent (Santa Clara, Calif.) MycoSensor QPCR Assay Kit (cat.#302107). NOD/SCID mice were produced mostly from breeding colonies with occasional purchases from the Jackson Laboratories and maintained in standard conditions according to the Institutional Guidelines. All animal experiments were approved by Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.

Human Primary Prostate Cancer (HPCa) Processing

All human prostate cancer samples used in this study were obtained from prostate cancer patients undergoing Da Vinci based radical prostatectomy with the written informed consent in accordance with federal and institutional guidelines and with the approved IRB protocol (MDACC LAB04-0498). The protocol for processing human prostate cancer samples to obtain high purity epithelial cancer cells was previously described (13).

RNA Isolation and Primers for qPCR Analysis

Total RNA was extracted using microRNA isolation kit (Life Technologies) according to the manufacturer's instructions. microRNA qPCRs were performed using TaqMan microRNA assays (Life Technologies). qPCR data for microRNAs were normalized to RNU48 whereas qPCR data for mRNAs were normalized to GAPDH.

Transient Transfection with Oliqonucleotides

Prostate cancer cells were transfected with 30 nmol/L of miR-141 mirVana mimics or non-targeting negative control (NC) oligos, or the Anti-miR-141 and Anti-negative control antisense oligos (Life Technologies) using Lipofectamine RNAiMax (Life Technologies) per the manufacturer's instructions. After culturing for 48 h, transfected cells were harvested for in vitro and in vivo studies.

Lentiviral-Mediated Over-Expression of miR-141

Three different lentiviral vectors over-expressing miR-141 were generated, i.e., LentimiR-141 (based on Lenti-miR over-expression system from System Biosciences, Mountain View, Calif.), pGIPZ-miR-141 (based on pGIPZ lentiviral backbone from Open Biosystems, pGIPZ-NS as the control), and pTRIPZ-141 (based on pTRIPZ inducible lentiviral backbone from Open Biosystems, pTRIPZ-NS as the control). pGIPZ and pTRIPZ lentiviral vectors were produced in HEK293T packaging cells with Trans-Lentiviral packaging system (Open Biosystems). Lenti-miR-141 and Lenti-ctl viruses were produced in 293T packaging cells with the packaging plasmid mix as previously described (13). Titers were determined by infecting and counting the GFP+293T cells. Prostate cancer cells (from either cultures or xenografts) were infected with the lentiviral supernatant at Multiplicity of Infection (MOI) of 10-20 in the presence of 8 μl/mL polybrene and harvested 48-72 h after infection for experiments.

Clonal and Sphere Formation Assays

For clonal assays, cultured prostate cancer cells or human prostate cancer cells freshly purified from patient primary tumors were plated at a clonal density (i.e., 100 cells/well) in a 6-well plate. The number of holoclones (33) was counted several days later. For Matrigel-based sphere formation assays, cells in medium were plated (generally 1,000 cells/well) in Matrigel at 1:1 ratio in a total of 100 μl in 96-well plates. Spheres were enumerated 1-2 weeks after plating. For floating sphere formation assays, cells were plated in serum-free epithelial basal medium (PrEBM) supplemented with B27 (Invitrogen), and 20 ng/ml EGF and bFGF in ultra-low attachment (ULA) plate. Floating spheres that arose in 1-2 weeks were counted. For all these experiments, a minimum of triplicate wells was run for each condition and repeat experiments were performed when necessary and feasible.

Migration and Invasion Assays

For Boyden Chamber invasion assays, Biocoat Matrigel Invasion Chamber (BD, Franklin Lakes, N.J.) was employed following the manufacturer's instructions. Briefly, 100,000-200,000 of prostate cancer cells after transfection with neutral control/miR-141 oligos or infection with miR-141 over-expressing lentivirus were seeded into each well. Medium with 20% fetal bovine serum was used in the lower chamber as chemo-attractant. After 20 h, cells were fixed and stained using HEMA stain. Representative images were taken for each membrane and cells were counted. Migration assays were simultaneously performed in control wells using identical protocol with Transwell (Costar; 8 μl PET) without Matrigel. In some experiments, Du145 cells were plated one day before and treated with 1, 2, and 5 μM of DZNep (3-Deazaneplanocin A) for 96 h after which cells were harvested and used in invasion assays and Western blot.

EdU Flow Cytometry

EdU (5-ethynyl-2′-deoxyuridine) is a nucleoside analog to thymidine and incorporated into DNA during active DNA synthesis. EdU incorporation assays were performed using Click-iT EdU Flow Cytometer Assays kit (C10418, Invitrogen) per manufacturer's instructions. Briefly, PPC-1 bulk cells or CD44⁺ DU145 cells transfected with negative control or miR-141 oligos (30 nM) for 48 h were pulsed with 10 μM EdU for 2.5 h and harvested. After fixation and permeabilization, cells were processed for EdU immunostaining and also labeled with Pacific Blue azide (1:200) and finally analyzed on a flow cytometer.

Luciferase Reporter Assays

The human CD44 3′-UTR was amplified from Du145 genomic DNA using primers 5′-AGAGCTCCACCTACACCATTATCTTG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 2) and 5′-TAAGCTTGGAAGTCTTCAGGAGACAC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 3), as previously described (13). For site-specific mutagenesis, the region in the CD44 3′-UTR (SEQ ID NO: 4, shown with uracils) complementary to the seed sequence of miR-141 (SEQ ID NO: 1) were mutated (TAGTGTT to GGCGCGG; see FIG. 3D). The human EZH2 3′-UTR was amplified from Du145 genomic DNA using primers 5′-GAGCTC-CATCTGCTACCTCCTCCCC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 6) and 5′-AAGCTTGACAAGTTCAAGTATTCTTTATT-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 7). For site-specific mutagenesis, the region complementary to the seed sequence of miR-141 was mutated (AAAGTGTT to TATCACAA; see FIG. 6A). The PCR fragments were cloned into pGEM-T vector (Promega, Madison, Wis.) and sequence confirmed. Cells were plated in 24-well plates and co-transfected, using Lipofectamine 2000, with 1 μg firefly luciferase reporter plasmid and 5 ng Renilla plasmid (phRL-CMV) into which the 3′-UTR fragments were cloned. The luciferase activities were detected using Duo-luciferase reporter assay system (Promega). Human RAC1, CDC42, CDC42EP3, and ARPC5 3′-UTR luciferase reporter constructs were obtained from SwitchGear Genomics (Menlo Park, Calif.) and luciferase activities were measured per the manufacturer's instructions using LightSwitch luciferase assay kit.

Rho Family GTPase Activity Assay

The activity of Rho family of small GTPases including RhoA, RAC1 and CDC42 were detected using G-LISA small G-protein activation assays per the manufacturer's instructions (Cytoskeleton, Inc., Denver, Colo.; catalog# BK135).

RNA-Seq, Data Processinq and Bioinformatics

Du145 and LAPC9 cells were transfected with 30 nM of miR-141 or negative control oligos for 48 h. Total RNA was purified using RNeasy mini kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany). The overexpression of miR-141 was validated by qPCR. 100 ng of total RNA samples was then converted to cDNA using a NuGEN Ovation RNA-Seq System v2 according to the manufacturer's protocol (NuGEN, San Carlos, Calif.). NuGEN-amplified double-stranded cDNAs were fragmented into ˜180 base pair (bp) using a Covaris system (Covaris, Woburn, Mass.). Fragmented cDNAs were run on a SPRI-TE library construction system (Beckman Coulter, Fullerton, Calif.), and during the adaptor ligation step, uniquely indexed NEXTflex adapters (Bioo Scientific, Austin, Tex.) were used for each of the samples to allow for multiplexing. Adapter-ligated libraries were enriched by PCR using a KAPA library amplification kit (KAPA Biosystems, Wilmington, Mass.) (1 cycle at 98° C. for 45 seconds; 7 cycles at 98° C. for 15 seconds, 65° C. for 30 seconds, and 72° C. for 30 seconds; 1 cycle at 72° C. for 1 minute), and purified with AMPureXP beads (Beckman Coulter, Pasadena, Calif.). The purified libraries were quantified using a KAPA library quantification kit. The libraries were loaded on cBot (Illumina, San Diego, Calif.) at final concentration of 10 μM to perform cluster generation, followed by 2×76 bp sequencing on HiSeq 2000 (Illumina, San Diego, Calif.).

Sequencing reads were mapped to reference human genome sequence (NCBI 36.1 [hg19] assembly by TopHat (Version 2.0.6). The number of fragments in each known gene from RefSeq database (downloaded from UCSC Genome Browser on Mar. 9, 2012) was enumerated using htseq-count from HTSeq package (version 0.5.4p9). Genes with less than 10 fragments in all the samples were removed before differential expression analysis. The differential expression between conditions was statistically assessed by R/Bioconductor package edgeR (version 3.0.8). Genes with FDR (false discovery rate) of ≦0.05 and >200 bp were called as differentially expressed.

For Gene Ontology (GO) analysis, IPA (Ingenuity Pathway Analysis; Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.) and GSEA (Gene Set Enrichment Analysis; Broad Institute) were performed. The standard procedure was followed (www.broadinstitute.org/gsea/doc/GSEAUserGuideFrame.html) as described by GSEA user guide and used curated gene set C2 of the Molecular Signature Database (MSigDB) version 4.0 to compute overlaps between gene set and gene sets in MSigDB. Some of the datasets presented in the text are annotated here. For example, Wong and colleagues (63) identified a core ESC-like gene module containing genes coordinately upregulated in a compendium of mouse embryonic stem cells (ESC) that are shared with the human ESC-like module (FIG. 4D). In another study, Lim et al. identified a gene signature (FIG. 4E) that was consistently down-regulated in mammary stem cells in both mouse and human (64). Through whole-genome DNA microarrays in 31 breast cancer cell lines, Charafer-Jauffret et al. found a list of genes (FIG. 4I) that was up-regulated in luminal-like breast cancer cell lines compared to the mesenchymal-like breast cancer lines (65). Onder and colleagues (66) performed gene expression analysis in HMLE cells (immortalized nontransformed mammary epithelium) after E-cadherin (CDH1) knockdown by RNAi, and identified genes that were down-regulated after loss of E-cadherin (FIG. 4J). To analyze epithelial to mesenchymal transition-causing pathways in tumorigenesis, Aigner and colleagues (67) identified a gene signature that was up-regulated in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells after knockdown of ZEB1 by RNAi (FIG. 4K) representing transcriptional targets of Ecadherin repressor ZEB1 in invasive human cancer cells.

Identification of Putative Direct miR-141 Tarqets in Prostate Cancer Cells by Merging RNA-Seq Data with the miR-200a Ago-HITS-CLIP-Seq Data

The authors' in-house scripts (12) was utilized for sequence alignment and peak calling. The miR-200a CLIP-Seq results containing the binding information were further extracted and merged with Du145 or LAPC9 RNA-Seq data by gene symbol.

siRNA-Mediated Knockdown

siRNAs targeting RAC1, CDC42 and EZH2 were purchased from Origene (Rockville, Md.). Three unique 27mer siRNA duplexes for each target were provided. siRNAs were transfected at 10 nM for 48 h using Lipofectamine RNAiMax (Life Technologies). Knockdown efficiency was determined by qPCR.

Statistical Analyses

In general, experiments were done in triplicates for each condition when feasible. Results are presented as mean±standard deviation (STDEV) calculated using Microsoft Excel. Statistical differences were determined using unpaired two-tailed Student's t-test for most analyses except for tumor incidence for which a Chi square test was used. P-values less than 0.05 are considered statistically significant. No statistical method was used to pre-determine sample size and no samples were not excluded for any analysis.

Accession Number

The DNA and RNA sequence data was deposited with NCBI Gene Expression Omnibus under accession number GSE71756.

Example 2

miR-141 is Under-Expressed in CD44⁺ Prostate Cancer Cells in Both Xenograft and Patient Tumors

Systematic studies on prostate cancer cell heterogeneity has established that the CD44⁺ prostate cancer cell population in multiple xenograft models as well as primary patient tumors is enriched in clonogenic and tumorigenic cells that fulfill cancer stem cell definitions (13, 20, 21, 23, 25).

CD44⁺ Prostate cancer cells were purified from LAPC9, LAPC4, and Du145 xenografts and VCaP cultures, and, for comparisons, CD133+ cells (19) were purified from LAPC4 xenografts, and integrin α₂β₁ cells (21,25) from Du145 xenografts, and performed qRT-PCR analysis of mature miR-141 levels relative to the corresponding marker-negative cell populations. It was found that miR-141 was commonly underexpressed in these prostate cancer stem/progenitor populations, including all CD44⁺ subpopulations (FIG. 1A). Furthermore, correlation analysis in 8 prostate cancer xenograft/culture derived cells revealed that the miR-141 mRNA levels overall inversely correlated with the abundance of CD44⁺ cells in each model (FIG. 1B). Importantly, the miR-141 levels were much lower in the CD44⁺ cells freshly purified from 21 primary human prostate cancer (HPCa) patient samples compared to the corresponding CD44⁻ human prostate cancer cells (FIG. 1C).

Example 3

miR-141 Over-Expression Inhibits Prostate Cancer Stem Cell Properties and Tumor Regeneration

As the CD44⁺ prostate cancer cells are prominently devoid of miR-141, its expression in CD44⁺ prostate cancer cells was restored and then cancer stem cell assays including stringent clonal (holoclone) and single cell-derived sphere-formation assays (13, 14, 23, 25, 33) were performed. CD44⁺ Du145 cells were freshly purified out by FACS, transfected with the miR-141 mimicking (miR-141) or control (NC) oligos for 48 h, and then plated cells for clonal and sphere assays. miR-141 transfection, inhibited both the clonogenic (FIGS. 1D &1E) and sphere-forming (FIG. 1F) capacities of CD44⁺ Du145 cells. In vivo tumor regeneration assays was performed (FIGS. 1G-1J) in bulk or purified CD44⁺ prostate cancer cells over-expressing miR-141 via either oligo transfection or lentiviral transduction. Enforced miR-141 expression significantly suppressed tumor growth and/or reduced tumor incidence in CD44⁺ Du145 (FIG. 1G) and LAPC9 (FIG. 1H) cells. A similar trend of tumor-inhibitory effect of miR-141 on CD44⁺ VCaP cells was also observed. Importantly, over-expression of miR-141 in bulk prostate cancer cells also suppressed tumor regeneration in both Du145 (FIG. 1I) and PPC-1 (FIG. 1J) models. Consistent with its tumor-inhibitory effects, miR-141 inhibited clonal expansion and sphere formation in PPC-1 cells. miR-141 suppression of Prostate cancer clonal and tumor growth was associated with inhibition of cell proliferation as evidenced by reduced EdU incorporation in miR-141-overexpressing cells and reduced Ki-67⁺ cells in miR-141-overexpressing tumors. miR-141 expression showed minimal effects on cell death and senescence. These results, together, suggest that miR-141 possesses prostate cancer-suppressive functions via inhibiting cell-cycle progression. Of clinical relevance, miR-141 overexpression inhibited clonal growth (FIG. 1K) and serial sphere formation in CD44⁺ (FIGS. 1L-1M) and bulk human prostate cancer (HPCa) cells freshly purified from patient tumors.

Example 4

miR-141 Inhibits Prostate Cancer Metastasis and Exhibits Therapeutic Efficacy

It has been demonstrated that the CD44⁺ prostate cancer cell population acutely purified from xenograft models possesses high metastatic potential (13, 20, 25). Thus, it was decided to determine if manipulating miR-141 levels in CD44⁺ or bulk prostate cancer cells would affect their metastatic capabilities. To this end, miR-141 was introduced via lentiviral infection into CD44^(hi) PC3-luc cells and then implanted the cells into the dorsal prostate (DP) of NOD/SCID mice (13, 20, 25). miR-141 over-expressing CD44^(hi) PC3 cells produced smaller primary tumors (FIGS. 2A & 2B) as well as less lung metastasis (FIGS. 2C-2D). The miR-141 over-expressing CD44⁺ Du145 cells were also implanted into the dorsal prostate of NOD/SCID mice and observed similar inhibitory effects of miR-141 on primary tumor growth as well as metastasis in the lungs (FIG. 2E). To test whether miR-141 might possess any ‘therapeutic’ efficacy, a Doxycycline (Dox) inducible miR-141 lentiviral expression system was established (pTRIPZ-141). LAPC9-GFP cells infected with pTRIPZ-141 or control vector (pTRIPZ-NS) were implanted into the dorsal prostate and allowed tumors to develop for ˜2 weeks to reach palpable sizes (˜2-3 mm diameter). miR-141 expression with doxycycline feed was then induced on day 16. It was observed that miR-141 induction inhibited growth of LAPC9 xenografts (FIGS. 2F-2G) and reduced lung metastasis (FIGS. 2H-2I).

Example 5

miR-141 Inhibits Prostate Cancer Cell Invasion and CD44 Functions as a Direct Target of miR141

To determine molecular mechanisms underlying the metastasis-suppressing effects of miR-141 in prostate cancer cells, Matrigel invasion assays was performed, which revealed that miR-141 significantly inhibited invasive capabilities of cultured as well as primary patient human prostate cancer cells. The miR-200 family members, including miR-141, are well-established negative regulators of epithelial to mesenchymal transition (7-10). As enforced miR-141 expression inhibits prostate cancer cell invasion and metastasis, whether miR-141 exerts its effects by suppressing epithelial to mesenchymal transition (FIGS. 3A-3C) was examined. It was found that miR-141 expression in CD44⁺ Du145 cells caused significant increase in E-cadherin (CDH1) and generally reduced mRNA levels of mesenchymal markers including VIM and ZEB1 (FIG. 3B). In bulk Du145 cells, miR-141 overexpression also led to increased E-cadherin and decreased VIM and ZEB1 (FIG. 3A). Consistently, miR-141 increased E-cadherin (CDH1) and reduced ZEB1 protein levels in bulk Du145 and PC3 cells (FIG. 3C). Interestingly, however, qPCR analysis showed that in bulk Du145 cells, miR-141 did not reduce the mRNA levels of most other epithelial to mesenchymal transition markers examined including FN, ZEB2, SNAI1, SNAI2, and TWIST (FIG. 3A). These latter observations suggest that miR-141 might be inducing a ‘partial’ MET phenotype (27, 28, 34-36) in prostate cancer cells in that it induces a strong epithelial phenotype (evidenced by increased CDH1) but only a partial loss of mesenchymal genes.

Recent studies have suggested that cancer stem cells may not always be associated with a complete mesenchymal phenotype—rather, cancer cells with a partial epithelial to mesenchymal transition phenotype that allows a great proliferative capability of epithelial cells and the morphological plasticity of mesenchymal cells will have the best chance to survive and establish a tumor or metastatic colony (36-38). Consistent with this notion, it was observed that CD44⁺ prostate cancer/human prostate cancer cells, although possessing high tumor-regenerating and metastatic potentials (13, 20, 21, 23, 25), did not manifest a ‘pure’ mesenchymal gene expression profile.

In a previous study (13), miR-34a (SEQ ID NO: 8), which was under-expressed in CD44⁺ prostate cancer/human prostate cancer cells, was found to directly target CD44 mRNA (SEQ ID NO: 5) at two sites of the 3′-UTR (FIG. 3D). Since miR-141 was also under-expressed in CD44⁺ prostate cancer (FIG. 1A) and human prostate cancer (FIG. 1C) cells and there was a good inverse correlation between % CD44⁺ prostate cancer cells and relative miR-141 levels (FIG. 1B), it was suspected that miR-141 might also target CD44. Indeed, several microRNA target prediction programs identified a putative miR-141 binding site in the 3-′UTR of CD44 that partially overlapped with and sat just slightly downstream of the second miR-34a binding site (FIG. 3D). Luciferase assays indicated that co-transfection of the luciferase reporter and miR-141 oligos into Du145 cells produced lower luciferase activities than cells co-transfected with the reporter construct plus negative control oligos (FIG. 3E). Mutation of the miR-141 binding sequence abrogated the suppressive effect of miR-141 (FIG. 3E). Over-expression of miR-141 in bulk Du145 and PC3 cells or in CD44⁺ Du145 cells significantly reduced CD44 mRNA and protein levels (FIGS. 3F-3G). Immunofluorescence staining for CD44 in PC3 cells that had been transduced with Lenti-141 revealed a stunning contrasting pattern such that the miR-141-expressing (i.e., GFP⁺) cells were largely devoid of CD44 expression (FIG. 3H). It was also found that the endpoint tumors derived from miR-141 overexpressing prostate cancer cells expressed lower levels of CD44 mRNA (FIG. 3F) and protein (FIG. 3I) than the control tumors. Finally, functional ‘rescue’ invasion assays was performed by overexpressing a CD44 cDNA (13) lacking the miR-141 target site. As shown in FIG. 3J, miR-141 oligo transfection inhibited Du145 cell invasion, which was partially overcome by expressing exogenous CD44. Altogether, these studies (FIG. 3D-3J) identify CD44 as a direct target of miR-141 in prostate cancer cells.

Example 6

Whole-Genome RNA-Seq Analysis Reveals Novel Pathways Regulated by miR-141

To elucidate the miR-141-regulated global gene expression changes and to identify novel targets of miR-141, genome-wide RNA-Seq was performed in Du145 (FIGS. 4A-4L) and LAPC9 (FIGS. 4M-4Y) cells transfected with miR-141 and negative control oligos. Of the 13,456 mapped genes in Du145 cells, 2,253 differentially expressed genes were identified (DEGs; FDR<0.05) including 949 down- and 1,304 up-regulated genes (FIG. 4A). Ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA) in the 2,253 DEGs revealed “Prostate Cancer Signaling” and several growth factor signaling pathways, including PI3K/AKT, ERK/MAPK, IGF-1/insulin receptor, EGF/ERBB, and growth hormone signaling, among the pathways most significantly affected by miR-141 (FIG. 4B). These latter findings suggest that miR-141 may dampen mitogenic signaling to inhibit cell-cycle progression.

Consistent with these findings, Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) revealed that the miR-141 gene expression profile was negatively associated with the kegg reactome “cell cycle” (FIG. 4C) and “cell mitotic” terms. In addition, the miR-141 differentially expressed genes were enriched in STAT3 and JAK/Stat3 signaling (FIG. 4B), a wellknown regulator of stem cells, suggesting that miR-141 may negatively impact (cancer) stem cell signaling in Du145 cells. Gene Set Enrichment Analysis also demonstrated that the miR-141 induced gene expression changes negatively correlated with ESC core genes (FIG. 4D) and positively correlated with “Mammary Stem Cell Downregulated” (FIG. 4E). Together, these analyses indicate that miR-141 targets genes that normally promote cell cycle progression and stem cell activities, consistent with the preceding biological studies.

RNA-Seq data also provided strong support to the earlier observations that miR-141 inhibits prostate cancer cell invasion and metastasis (FIGS. 4F-4K). For instance, functional annotations (23, 25, 39) of the miR-141 downregulated 949 genes in Du145 cells revealed “invasion/metastasis” and “cell cycle” to be the two major classes of the affected genes (FIG. 4H). Furthermore, consistent with well-established regulation of epithelial to mesenchymal transition by miR-200 family (7-10), miR-141 caused changes in genes involved in epithelial to mesenchymal transition, TGF-β, cell-cell junction and cytoskeleton, and other related signaling processes (FIG. 4F). Many epithelial markers including E-Cadherin, Claudin family members (e.g., CLDN7 and CLDN3), and cytokeratins (KRT) were strongly induced by miR-141 (FIG. 4G). Gene Set Enrichment Analysis also showed that the miR-141 gene expression profile was strongly enriched in the normal prostatic luminal epithelial cells recently reported (39). Meanwhile, miR-141 downregulated TGFB2, ZEB1, MAP2K4, and VIM but caused inconsistent changes in ZEB2, TWIST2, and SANI2 (FIG. 4G). These results, collectively, indicate, again, that miR-141 induces, in prostate cancer cells, a strong epithelial phenotype but only a partial loss of mesenchymal gene expression, i.e., a partial epithelial to mesenchymal transition, as supported by Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (FIGS. 4I-4K). Strikingly, among the miR-141 downregulated genes, a strong over-representation of genes associated with cytoskeleton remodeling and cell motility including Rho family GTPases was observed as well as its upstream regulators and downstream effectors (FIG. 4F). A recent study using Ago-HITS-CLIP approach identified a predominant role of the miR-200 family targets in the coordinated control of actin cytoskeleton dynamics (12). Since the miR-200 family members share largely overlapping downstream targets (8-10), the CLIP-Seq data that provided direct target association information of miR-200a, which shares identical seed sequence with miR-141 was compared with the RNA-seq data to identify direct targets of miR-141 in prostate cancer cells. From the 2,253 DEGs, 532 transcripts (263 down- and 269 upregulated) were found to have binding sites to miR-200a/miR-141 (FIGS. 4A and 4M-4T). Among the top 35 downregulated ‘direct’ target genes were 4 known miR-141 targets (i.e., TGFB2, CDK6, SEC23A and MAP2K4), 5 genes involved in Rho GTPase signaling (MAP2K4, ARPC5, CDC42EP3, CDC42 and RAC1), and CD44 (FIGS. 4L-4T).

Of the 13,813 mapped genes in LAPC9, 724 DEGs (FDR<0.05) were identified including 459 down- and 265 up-regulated genes (FIG. 4M). An RNA-Seq experiment in xenograft LAPC9 cells overexpressing miR-141 also revealed that functional annotations of the 459 downregulated genes revealed “Metastasis-associated” gene category to be a major class affected by miR-141 (FIG. 4O). Similar to in Du145 cells, IPA demonstrated that miR-141 expression in LAPC9 cells impacted multiple pathways involved in actin cytoskeleton, adherens junction, and Cdc42/RhoA signaling (FIG. 4N). Furthermore, miR-141 prominently upregulated many epithelial markers including E-Cadherin, Claudin members and KRTs while downregulated TGFB2, ZEB1, MAP2K4, VIM, NYH10, FN1 and many other mesenchymal genes (FIG. 4P). GSEA positively correlated the miR-141 induced gene expression profile in LAPC9 cells with those in luminal (i.e., differentiated epithelial) breast cancer cells.

LAPC9 RNA-Seq data was then merged with the miR-200a CLIP-Seq data and found 157 putative direct targets of miR-141 in LAPC9 cells (FIG. 4M). Remarkably, 26 of the top 35 downregulated genes, including CDK6 (SEQ ID NO: 9), CDC42EP3 (SEQ ID NO: 11), and PADH1 (SEQ ID NO: 14) that harbor the miR-141 binding site(s) were commonly found in Du145 cells (FIGS. 4Q & 4S-4Y). Finally, it was found that the miR-141-induced gene expression profile in LAPC9 cells was associated with two data sets of “EZH2 Targets Downregulated” (FIG. 4R). Overall, miR-141 in LAPC9 cells elicits very similar gene expression changes and prominently targets genes involved in Rho GTPases, actin dynamics, EMT, and metastasis.

An RNA-Seq experiment in xenograft LAPC9 cells overexpressing miR-141 also revealed that: 1) miR-141 significantly downregulated metastasis-associated genes, 2) miR-141 impacted actin cytoskeleton and Rho GTPase signaling, 3) miR-141 upregulated CDH1 and many epithelial genes while downregulated numerous mesenchymal genes, and 4) miR-141 directly targeted ˜150 genes, many of which were shared with the predicted targets in Du145 cells (FIGS. 4S-4Y).

Example 7

Rho GTPase Signaling Components as Direct and Functional Tarqets of miR-141

The Rho family of small GTPases plays critical roles in regulating actin dynamics, organelle development, cytoskeletal remodeling, cell movement and other cellular functions (40-42). Three major Rho GTPases, RhoA, RAC1, and CDC42, regulate different yet intertwined aspects of cell movement: RhoA mainly modulates (actin) stress fiber (and focal adhesion) formation and RAC1 mainly regulates lamellipodia formation via ARP2/3 complex whereas CDC42 is not only a major inducer of filopodia but also can activate ARP2/3 complex to form invadosomes. ARPC5 encodes one of the seven subunits of human ARP2/3 complex, which is major component of the actin cytoskeleton and can be found at the leading edge of motile cells. CDC42EP3 encodes the effector protein downstream of CDC42, which is involved in actin cytoskeleton re-organization during cell shape changes including pseudopodia formation. As the RNA-Seq analysis implicated ARPC5, CDC42EP3, CDC42, and RAC1 as direct downstream targets of miR-141 in prostate cancer cells (FIGS. 4M-4T), Western blotting analysis was performed to determine the impact of miR-141 on the protein levels of these 4 molecules.

As shown in FIG. 5A, miR-141 over-expression downregulated, to varying degrees, the levels of all 4 proteins. Luciferase reporter assays also indicated that miR-141 inhibited the luciferase activities of the constructs containing the 3′-UTR of RAC1, CDC42, CDC42EP3 or ARPC5 (FIG. 5B). To validate that these molecules represent the functional mediators of the inhibitory effects of miR-141, ‘rescue’ invasion experiments were performed, in which RAC1 and CDC42 coding constructs that lacked the miR-141 binding site(s) at the 3′-UTRs were overexpressed. As shown in FIG. 5C, overexpression of miR-141 inhibited Du145 cell invasion, but the inhibitory effect was overcome by the expression of non-targetable RAC1 or CDC42 cDNA. Furthermore, miR-141 overexpression suppressed the GTPase activities of RAC1 and CDC42 but not RhoA (FIG. 5D) and, interestingly, RhoA was not predicted to be a direct miR-141 target. Finally, it was observed that the antisense oligos of miR-141 (i.e., anti-141), when transfected into prostate cancer cells, promoted invasion (FIG. 5E). Importantly, siRNA-mediated silencing of RAC1 or CDC42 inhibited Prostate cancer cell invasion, which was ‘rescued’ by co-transfection of anti-141 (FIG. 5F-5G). These results, taken together, suggest that miR-141 regulates prostate cancer cell motility/invasion via suppressing several members of Rho GTPase signaling pathway.

Example 8

EZH2 Represents Another Novel Target of miR-141

Interestingly, IPA Upstream Regulator analysis implicated EZH2, a histone methyltransferase and a critical component of the PRC2 (Polycomb Repressive Complex 2) that is frequently overexpressed in aggressive forms of prostate and other cancers and is involved in proliferation, cancer sem cell maintenance, invasion and metastasis (43-46), as a miR-141 ‘upstream regulator’ (P=2.46×10-7), suggesting that EZH2 might be one of the mediators in miR-141-elicited global gene expression changes. In support, miR-141 induced gene expression profile was associated with “EZH2 Targets DN” in several data sets. Importantly, a putative miR-141 (SEQ ID NO: 1) binding site in the 3′-UTR of EZH2 mRNA (SEQ ID NO: 15) was observed (FIG. 6A). Luciferase reporter assays showed that miR-141 suppressed the luciferase activities of the WT but not mutated EZH2 3′-UTR (FIG. 6B). CD44⁺ prostate cancer cells generally expressed higher levels of EZH2 mRNA (FIG. 6C) and that miR-141 overexpression significantly reduced both RNA and protein levels of EZH2 in prostate cancer cells (FIGS. 6D-6E). Interestingly, miR-141 expression also reduced the protein levels of SUZ12, another component of the PRC2 complex (FIG. 6E), SUZ12 (repressed) targets were enriched in miR-141 downregulated genes (FIG. 6F), and 1 putative miR-141 binding site at the 3′-UTR of EZH2 was observed. These observations, overall, suggest that EZH2 (and perhaps SUZ12) is a direct target of miR-141. Consistent with this suggestion, DZNep (3-Deazaneplanocin A hydrochloride), a small-molecule EZH2 inhibitor, reduced EZH2 protein and blocked Du145 cell invasion (FIG. 6G). siRNA mediated EZH2 knockdown also inhibited Prostate cancer cell invasion, which was alleviated by anti-141 (FIG. 6H). Finally, miR-141 inhibition of prostate cancer cell invasion could be partially relieved by overexpressing an exogenous EZH2 cDNA that lacked the miR-141 targeting sequence (FIG. 6I). These results, altogether, indicate that EZH2 represents a functionally relevant target of miR-141 in Prostate cancer cells.

Example 9

miR-141 Mimics Inhibits Lung Cancer Cell Proliferation and Invasion

A hallmark of cancer is uncontrolled cell proliferation; cell proliferation assays are commonly used by researchers to study the influence of genes in oncogenesis. A Transwell assay was used to investigate the effect of miR-141 mimics on the proliferation and invasion of the 95D, NCI-H358 lung cancer cells and NCI-H446 non-small lung cancer cells in vitro. Proliferation rate was measured by OD450 value and experiments were repeated twice. Cancer suppression role of miR141-1 and miR141-2 mimics were tested on 95-D lung cancer cells, where miR141-1 and miR141-2 inhibited cancer cell proliferation at 72 hours and invasion as compared to blank control (B), non-sense mimic (N) and medium control (M). miR141-2 inhibited proliferation and invasion of cancer cell more as compared to miR141-1(FIGS. 7A-7B).

miR141 mimics (miR141-1 and miR141-2) were also tested on NCI-H358 lung cancer cells to study their cancer suppression role. Cancer cells proliferation and invasion was significantly inhibited by miR141-1 and miR141-2 mimics as compared to blank control (B), non-sense mimic (N) and medium control (M) (FIGS. 7C-7D).

miR141 mimics (miR141-1 and miR141-2) were also tested on NCI-H446 non-small cells lung cancer cells to study their cancer suppression role. Cancer cells proliferation and invasion was significantly inhibited by miR141-1 and miR141-2 mimics as compared to blank control (B), non-sense mimic (N) and medium control (M). miR141-2 inhibited proliferation and invasion of cancer cell more as compared to miR141-1 (FIGS. 7E-7F).

Example 10

miR-141 Mimics Inhibits Liver Cancer Cell Proliferation and Invasion

To validate the inhibitory role of miR-141 on proliferation of liver cancer cells, cell proliferation assay was performed Hep3B2.1-7, HepG2 and HL-7702 liver cancer cells. Cell invasion (transwell) assay was performed to further examine if the differential expression of miR-141 was correlated with cell invasion. A Transwell assay was used to investigate the effect of miR-141 mimics on the cell invasion of the Hep3B2.1-7, HepG2 and HL-7702 liver cancer cells in vitro. Proliferation rate was measured by OD450 value and experiments were repeated twice. Cancer suppression role of miR141-1 and miR141-2 mimics were tested on Hep3B2.1-7 liver cancer cells, where miR141-1 and miR141-2 inhibited cancer cell proliferation at 72 hours and cancer cell invasion as compared to blank control (B), non-sense mimic (N) and medium control (M) (FIGS. 8A-8B).

miR141 mimics (miR141-1 and miR141-2) were also tested on HepG2 liver cancer cells to study their cancer suppression role. Cancer cells proliferation and cancer cell invasion was significantly inhibited by miR141-1 and miR141-2 mimics as compared to blank control (B), non-sense mimic (N) and medium control (M) (FIGS. 8C-8D).

miR141 mimics (miR141-1 and miR141-2) were also tested on HL-7702 liver cancer cells to study their cancer suppression role. Cancer cells proliferation and cancer cell invasion was significantly inhibited by miR141-1 and miR141-2 mimics as compared to blank control (B), non-sense mimic (N) and medium control (M). miR141-2 inhibited proliferation and invasion of cancer cell more as compared to miR141-1 (FIGS. 8E-8F).

The following references are cited herein:

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The present invention is well adapted to attain the ends and advantages mentioned as well as those that are inherent therein. The particular embodiments disclosed above are illustrative only, as the present invention may be modified and practiced in different but equivalent manners apparent to those skilled in the art having the benefit of the teachings herein. Furthermore, no limitations are intended to the details of construction or design herein shown, other than as described in the claims below. It is therefore evident that the particular illustrative embodiments disclosed above may be altered or modified and all such variations are considered within the scope and spirit of the present invention. Also, the terms in the claims have their plain, ordinary meaning unless otherwise explicitly and clearly defined by the patentee. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of treating cancer in an individual, comprising: administering to the individual a pharmacologically effective amount of a microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or a micro-RNA-141 mimic or a pharmaceutical composition thereof that increases the expression of microRNA-141 in a cell associated with the cancer.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the cancer is a prostate cancer, a lung cancer or a liver cancer.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide has the sequence shown in SEQ ID NO:
 1. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein administering the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic decreases a mRNA level and a protein level of CD44, EZH2, SUZ12, Rho GTPases or a combination thereof in the cancer cell.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the cancer is a prostate cancer and administering the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic upregulates E-Cadherin (CDH1), CLDN7, CLDN3, or cytokeratin genes in a prostate cancer cell.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the cancer is a prostate cancer and administering the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic downregulates TGFB2, CDK6, SEC23A, ZEB1, MAP2K4, ARPC5, CDC42EP3, CDC42, RAC1, CD44 or VIM genes in a prostate cancer cell.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein administering the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic inhibits cell proliferation, inhibits invasion, inhibits migration, inhibits tumor growth, inhibits tumor regeneration, or inhibits metastatic potential or a combination thereof in the cancer.
 8. A method of inhibiting proliferation of a cancer cell in an individual, comprising: administering to the individual a pharmacologically effective amount of a microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or a micro-RNA-141 mimic or a pharmaceutical composition thereof that increases the expression of microRNA-141 in the cancer cell.
 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the cancer is a prostate cancer, a lung cancer or a liver cancer.
 10. The method of claim 8, wherein the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide has the sequence shown in SEQ ID NO:
 1. 11. The method of claim 8, wherein administering the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic inhibits invasion, migration, tumor growth, tumor regeneration, or metastatic potential of the cancer cell.
 12. The method of claim 8, wherein administering the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic decreases mRNA and protein level of CD44, EZH2, SUZ12, Rho GTPases or a combination thereof in the cancer cell.
 13. The method of claim 8, wherein the cancer cell is a prostate cancer cell and administering the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic upregulates E-Cadherin (CDH1), CLDN7, CLDN3, or cytokeratin genes therein.
 14. The method of claim 8, wherein the cancer cell is a prostate cancer cell and administering the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 downregulates TGFB2, CDK6, SEC23A, ZEB1, MAP2K4, ARPC5, CDC42EP3, CDC42, RAC1, CD44 or VIM genes therein.
 15. A method of inhibiting proliferation of a cell associated with a cancer, comprising: contacting the cell with a pharmacologically effective amount of a microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or a micro-RNA-141 mimic that increases the expression of microRNA-141 in the cell.
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the cancer is a prostate cancer, a lung cancer or a liver cancer.
 17. The method of claim 15, wherein the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide has the sequence shown in SEQ ID NO:
 1. 18. The method of claim 15, wherein contacting the cell with the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic decreases the levels of CD44, EZH2, SUZ12, Rho GTPases protein or mRNA revise as for claim 3 or a combination thereof in the cell.
 19. The method of claim 15, wherein the cell is associated with a prostate cancer and contacting the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic upregulates E-Cadherin (CDH1), CLDN7, CLDN3, or cytokeratin genes therein.
 20. The method of claim 15, wherein the cell is associated with a prostate cancer and contacting the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic downregulates TGFB2, CDK6, SEC23A, ZEB1, MAP2K4, ARPC5, CDC42EP3, CDC42, RAC1, CD44 or VIM genes therein.
 21. The method of claim 15, wherein contacting the cell with the microRNA-141 oligonucleotide or the micro-RNA-141 mimic inhibits cell proliferation, inhibits invasion inhibits migration, inhibits tumor growth, inhibits tumor regeneration, or inhibits metastatic potential or a combination thereof. 